Results of the Second phase Biodiversity Conservation study at seven selected focus church and monastery sites

Zewge Teklehaimanot, Desalegn Desisa, Getachew Adane, John Healey, John Hall, Bianca Ambrose

1. Study sites

Based on the baseline information generated from the first phase fieldwork, a stratified sample of seven focus sites of biodiversity importance/significance were selected for the second phase project activities. The following criteria were used to select the focus sites: representation of ecological, ethnic and administrative regions; emphasis on old sites and sites of religious significance; site accessibility and feasibility for study; sites with high conservation value; a mixture of churches and monasteries; a mixture of sites with different levels of threat. Based on the above criteria the following seven sites were chosen: Aba Asrat Monastery, Debre Libanos Monastery, Ziqualla Monastery, Mihur Eyessus Monastery, Geja Georgis Church, Debre Benkol Monastery and Anchucho Medihanealem Church.

2. Research methodology

To ensure full participation of local communities and the clergy in the conservation and management of the church and monastery forests, detailed participatory biodiversity appraisals are indispensable. Therefore, a participatory biodiversity appraisal methodology was designed and carried out beginning in December 2002 at the above seven focus sites.

The research objectives of the participatory appraisal were: 1) to elucidate the values placed on sacred land biodiversity by different stakeholders; 2) to discover why sacred land biodiversity has been conserved and if and how this relates to those values and beliefs; 3) to elucidate the relationships between these values and religious or spiritual belief systems; 4) to understand wider attitudes to conservation; 5) to understand wider issues concerned with planting and protection generally; 6) to assess the potential at each site for initiating a process which supports the planting of species of conservation importance and develops in-situ monitoring techniques, which will lead to the development of conservation management planning.

Various participatory tools were used. At each site, group discussions and structured and semi-structured interviews were conducted to gather information on local attitudes toward sacred land forest conservation, resource use patterns, relationships between people and the sacred land forest, and the perceptions of the community living around the forests. The mapping of the lands of the monastery or church forest and its environs, transect walk and scoring and ranking of species were conducted with the clergy and selected key informants from the community of the surrounding area. Oral histories of the community and their tradition relating to resource use and forest cover were recorded. The methodology was refined after being tested in two sites (Kondaltiti and Chancho). Hard copies of the MSc degree dissertation of the University of Wales Bangor, which reports the work carried out to test the methodology at Kondaltiti monastery by Matthew Painton (2002) and the report on the methodology development and refinement based on Chancho church conducted by Bianca Ambrose (2003), are enclosed.

A biophysical survey was conducted at each site to analyse the present plant status, and current pressure on sacred land forest resources. A one-hectare (100 m x 100 m) sample plot was established in the forest at each site. The location of the sample plot was selected to reflect the natural range of variation in the forest. A stratified sample of 25 sub-plots, each of 10 m x 10 m, were sampled in each plot and permanently marked. Within each sub-plot a further quadrat of 5 m x 5 m was used to sample regeneration (<1 m high trees) and saplings (>1 m height and <5 cm diameter at breast height (dbh)). The total sampling area was 2500 m² (0.25 ha). Variables such as tree density, dbh, species richness, natural regeneration, evidence of tree cutting, grazing livestock, and signs of fuel wood collection and charcoal production were recorded.

3. Results of the second phase study

I. General

There was distinct difference between monasteries and the churches. The monasteries have higher number of tree species (with the exception of Debre Benkol monastery) and larger area of forests than the churches (Table 1). Both monasteries and churches are, however, are under threat from various sources.

A large number of woody species recorded are common to all the seven sites and all of them are endemic to afromontane vegetation type (White, 1983). Afromontane forest ecosystem is known to be diverse and rich in endemic species (Friis, 1992; Lovett and Friis, 1996). This explains why large number of woody species was recorded in the seven sites (230 woody species). Afromontane ecosystem is also one of the Vavilov's centres of origin and/or diversity for many domesticated plants and their wild relatives, e.g. wheat, barley, teff and coffee (Teketay and Bekele, 1995).

Among the tree species recorded in the seven focus sites, 14 species were identified as national priority conservation tree species (IBCR, 2003) and three of them are in IUCN’s red list (WCMC, 1996) (Table 2).

Based on the scoring and ranking of species exercise conducted at each site, the clergy and community members identified additional species of trees that they highly value for meeting their needs for timber, fuelwood, aesthetic and spiritual purposes (Table 3).

Table 1. Sacred land forest status and threats

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	Debre Libanos	Aba Asrat	Mihur Eyessus	Debre Benkol	Ziqualla	Geja Georgis	Anchocho
Age (years)	734	120	645	200	842	147	124
Forest area (ha)	12	12	10	56	300	1	4
No of woody species recorded	75	84	83	44	56	26	51
No of mammal species recorded	6	7	10	4	6	0	4
Source of threat
(a) Grazing livestock	High	High	None	High	High	High	High
(b) Wood extraction by surrounding local communities	None	High	None	High	High	None	High
(c) Expansion of modern grave	High	None	None	Low	Medium	Low	Low
(d) Wood harvesting by the monastic and church community	High	Medium	Medium	High	High	Low	High
(e) Conflict with local communities	None	High	Medium	High	High	None	Low

Table 2. National and international conservation priority indigenous species identified in the sacred land forests

Tree species	Priority category	Debre libanos	Aba Asrat	Mihur Eyessus	Debre Benkol	Ziqualla	Geja Georgis	Anchocho
Juniperus procera	IUCN Red list^1	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Olea europea subsp.cuspidate	High national priority, IBCR^2	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Prunus africana	IUCN Red list	Yes	Yes	Yes				Yes
Podocarpus falcatus	High national priority, IBCR	Yes		Yes				Yes
Acacia abyssinica	High national priority, IBCR	Yes	Yes					Yes
Cordia africana	High national priority, IBCR	Yes			Yes
Ficus sur	High national priority, IBCR	Yes	Yes
Dombeya aethiopica	IUCN Red list		Yes
Albizia gummifera	High national priority, IBCR		Yes
Ficus vasta	High national priority, IBCR						Yes
Acacia nilotica	High national priority, IBCR		Yes
Acacia albida (Faidherbia albida)	High national priority, IBCR						Yes
Olea capensis	High national priority, IBCR			Yes
Hagenia abyssinica	High national priority, IBCR					Yes

¹WCMC (1996), ²IBCR (2003).

Table 3. Indigenous species highly valued by the local church and monastery communities for their wood, aesthetic and spiritual values

Debre Libanos	Aba Asrat	Mihur Eyessus	Debre Benkol	Ziqualla	Geja Georgis	Anchocho
Carissa edulis	Albizia schimperiana	Garcinia buchananii	Albiza amara	Olinaea rochetiana	Croton macrostachyus	Galiniera saxifraga
Maytenus arbutifolia	Apodytes dimidiata	Phoenix reclinata	Croton macrostachyus	Mimusops kummel	Maytenus arbutifolia	Ekebergia capensis
Dombeya torrida	Allophylus abyssinicus	Syzygium guineense	Acacia etbaica	Acacia gerrardii		Apodytes dimidiata
Schefflera abyssinica	Myrica salicifolia	Olinia rochetiana	Mimusops kummel	Protea gaguedi		Erythrina abyssinica
Rhus glutinosa	Clausena anisata			Grewia bicolor		Pittosporum abyssinica
	Carissa edulis			Premna resinosa		Allophylus abyssinicus
	Schefflera abyssinica			Euclea schimperi		Dombeya torrida
	Rhus glutinosa			Brucea antidysenterica
	Teclea nobis			Rhus glutinosa
	Olinaea rochetiana

II. Site specific results

i) Debrelibanos Monastery

Debrelibanos monastery is located at 104 km from Addis Ababa in the North Shewa Zone of Oromia State. It is located at 2400 m altitude whilst the rim of the valley rises to over 2560 m. Its geographical location is 38⁰51’E, 09⁰41’ N. The drainage from the surrounding highlands drops steeply into the flat land of the gorge where the monastery is located. The soil is dark grey and fertile, which indicates eroded top-soil deposits from the lava plateaus. The monastery is situated at the edge of the highland plateau on the flat ground below the first escarpment of the Jama gorge. The sides of the gorge descend in a series of parallel escarpments towards the river. The first escarpment (the surface rock of the plateau) is marked by massive cliffs formed by the thick layers of basaltic lava and this leads to the flat land where the monastery is located. Below these and forming the cliffs, which overlook the river, are layers of more recent sedimentary rocks (various kinds of limestone). The lowest benches of the gorge, therefore, are not densely populated. Some small settlements and some patches of cultivation can nevertheless be seen. The mean annual rainfall is 1200 mm, and there are five rainy months, May-September, with a peak in July. Mean annual temperature 23^oC. Mean length of dry season(s) is 4 months (source: North Shewa Agricultural Office).

The forest at Debrelibanos Monastery is one of the few remaining dry afromontane forests. The natural tree cover of the monastery consists of three distinct areas. These are large Olea europea ssp. cuspidata woodlands on the northern side of the monastery where both traditional and modern types of burial system take place. Starting just below the cliff on the steep and moderate part of the slope there is a mixed woodland with patches of planted Eucalyptus and to the south west there is a pure Eucalyptus plantation. The mixed forest covers areas from the east to some parts of the south west of the monastery lands. The total number of woody plant species recorded in the monastery lands is 75 representing at least 49 families of flowering plants and conifers. 80.7% are trees, 19.02% shrubs, 0.27% climbers and 0.11% woody herbs. The main high canopy tree species in the mixed forest include Allophylus abyssinicus, Prunus africana, Juniperus procera, Olea europea ssp. cuspidata, Millettia ferruginea, Dovyalis abyssinica and Schefflera abyssinica. The shrub layer includes Carissa edulis, Maytenus arbutifolia, Myrsine africana, Capparis micrantha, Vernonia auriculifera and Vernonia leopoldii. The forest is rich in highland biome birds and other wild animals. Among the common mammals found are the endemic chilada baboon, bush duiker, anubis baboon, rodent, rock hyrax, rabbit, porcupine, and aardvark.

Debrelibanos monastery was founded by Saint Teklehaimanot during the reign of Yekunno Amlak in 1270 (Ayele Teklehaimanot 1950). It was known as Dabre Asbo for about 160 years and, then Emperor Zar’aYaqob changed its name to the present name of Dabrelibanos in 1434 (Ayele Teklehaimanot 1950). The monastery was destroyed by the Muslim army of Mohammed Gragn in 1532. According to informants the monastery was also ravaged and destroyed during the battle between Christians ruled by Gelawdewos and the same Muslim army in 1559. The present church was built by Emperor Haile Sillasse in 1960. From the account of knowledgeable elderly monks, before and during the 1974 revolution, Debrelibanos was a heaven for wild life including bush buck, duieker, leopard, porcupine, pig, and warthog, in addition to a variety of birds, reptiles and amphibians. The wildlife and plant species have been significantly reduced since 1974. According to the informants, there are several reasons, the most significant being the multiple use of the forest that was permitted after the revolution in 1974. However, most of this wildlife has disappeared following the clearance of the forest due to expansion of settlement in the middle of the forest, which has shrunk from its original of over 50 ha to the present size of 12 ha. Nevertheless, the monastic community continues to depend on the forest for fuel wood. The monks are permitted to take as much wood as is necessary for their fuel. Although the informants insisted that they cut trees which are carefully selected among those that showed signs of aging and decay, the research team identified young trees especially Acacia abyssinica and Prunus africana cut and coppicing in the northern part of the monastery land during the present study. There is no belief system associated with individual tree species except the olive tree that is linked to Saint Teklehaimanot. According to a legend, the olive tree was brought to Debrelibanos by the Saint.

At present there are 700 registered monks besides many hermits who reside in the monastery in addition to approx. 4000 permanently settled pilgrims. Debrelibanos monastery is the only monastery where all subjects of church education are taught. Every year around 2000 students receive religious education at the monastery. According to the informants the monastery also gives services for many daily visitors estimated to be around 3000 per day who mostly come to visit the springs to obtain holy water. Thus, this ever-expanding human population is exerting tremendous pressure on the forest. The monastery forest is also used as the grazing area for cattle belonging to the monks and this has put another pressure on the forest. The expansion of the area occupied by modern graves has further reduced the undisturbed forest area.

ii) Geja Georgis Church

Geja Georgis is situated on top of a small hill 2 km away from the road to Butajira, 47 km from Addis Ababa; altitude 2220 m. Its geographical location is 08⁰50’N, 38⁰38’E. The area around Geja Georgis is flat and highly cultivated with little fallow land. Mixed farming including crop production and animal husbandry is practised. On the hill slope behind the church building there are recent active volcanic bubbles. The annual rainfall of the area is 1150 mm with an annual mean temperature of 18^oC (Alem-gena District Agricultural Office).

Natural vegetation in the area is sparse. Eucalyptus plantations are common around private croplands for cash income and to produce poles for construction. Conspicuous dense vegetation can only be seen around the church. Even, this is a very small cluster located at the top of the hill and characterized by very few species. These include: Euphorbia candelabrum, Olea europea ssp. cuspidata and the exotic Eucalyptus camaldulensis. As the density of the vegetation around the church is sparse, no significant wildlife populations were found.

Geja Georgis church was established in 1857. According to the informants the church first had a grass roof, and then a corrugated iron roof was built by the order of Emperor Menilik. During the Italian invasion, the Italian army destroyed the church. According to elderly knowledgeable informants the original vegetation of the surrounding area was mainly grassland with scattered trees of Acacia albida and shrubs of Carissa edulis. There were several indigenous naturally grown plant species on the church land during the reign of the Emperor Haile Sillasse. Most of them were shrubs and a few tree species including Buddleja polystachya, Croton macrostachyus, Vernonia amygdalina and Premna schimperi. Carissa edulis and Rosa abyssinica were also plentiful on the slope of the hill. All Olea europea ssp. cuspidata trees were planted by the clergy and the local landlords.

According to the history and time line study, key informants described that, during the early stage of the revolution in 1974, most of these plants were destroyed as the country was stateless and there were no rules and regulations, which prevented people from illegal acts. The transition from the Derg regime (1974-1991) to the present government has not brought any significant change in this situation. At present, the church-yard is highly overgrazed and eroded. Yet, there have been no initiatives to restore the natural flora; the only planting has been of exotic tree species, especially Eucalyptus spp. established for their high economic value.

The total number of woody plant species recorded in the area is 26 representing at least 21 families of flowering plants and conifers. Of these four are exotics, 1.5% are trees and 98.4% shrubs. The most abundant species were Justicia schimperiana and Euphorbia candelabrum. Farmers in the vicinity have traditionally deliberately kept Acacia albida on their farmland. They believe that it increases soil fertility.

iii) Aba Asrat Monastery

Aba Asrat monastery is established in a deeply dissected valley. The lower reach is 2100 m above sea level whilst the rim of the valley rises to over 2360 m. It is located 8 km south of Debremarkos close to the main road to Addis Ababa. Its geographical location is 37⁰45’ E, and 10⁰17’ N. The landscape is characterized by recent volcanic rock giving rise to various rolling and undulating slopes. The soils are reddish brown at higher altitudes, while in the lower valley they tend to become dark-grey and deep with a characteristically high clay content. The mean annual rainfall is 1300 mm, and there are five rainy months, May-September, with a peak in July. Mean annual temperature 15.6^oC and the mean length of the dry season(s) is 4 months (Eastern Gojjam Natural Resource Office).

The monastery is situated on the western slopes of a canyon right at the edge of the main highland plateau. This small canyon runs south and feeds directly into the Blue Nile. The upper part of the monastery land is delimited by a ca. 50 m high cliff whilst the remainder consists mainly of a steep slope down to the river edge.

The entire monastery land and nearby communal lands are believed to have once been covered by a forest of Albizia schimperiana, Albizia gummifera, Prunus africana, Acacia abyssinica, Apodytes dimidiata, Ekebergia capensis, Ficus spp., Schefflera abyssinca, Rhus glutinosa and Allophyllus abyssinicus. The original forest has now been reduced from the original of over 50 ha to 12 ha as a result of excessive cutting for fuel wood, construction of traditional houses, farm implements, household utensils and charcoal by the surrounding community and the clergy. At present shrubs and coppice regrowth dominate most of the landscape.

The total number of woody plant species recorded in the area was 84 representing at least 45 families of flowering plants and conifers. Among these, 37% were trees, 53.7% shrubs, 3.7% climbers and 5.6% herbs. The most frequently encountered species was Albizia schimperiana (frequency 100%). It was also the most abundant species. Only four species occurred in more than 50% of the plot, indicating dominance by a few species. The forest is also the major grazing land for livestock of the monks and the residents surrounding it. At present, while the density of some of the important species such as Olea europea ssp. cuspidata, Olinia rochetiana, Prunus africana, Albizia gummifera and Pittosporium virdiflorum has been reduced extensively (for example only one Olea, two Prunus, one Olinia and three Pittosporium trees exist on the monastery land), other species such as Acacia abyssinica, Myrica salicifolia, Apodytes dimidiata, Bersama abyssinica, Allophylus abyssinicus, Rhus glutinosa, Dracaena steudenri, Carissa edulis and Acacia nilotica have persisted at a higher density. The forest is rich in highland biome birds and other wild animals. Among the common mammals found are the endemic subspecies Menelik’s bushbuck, as well as bush duiker, anubis baboon, colobus monkey, rodent, rock hyrax, rabbit, porcupine, aardvark, civet, and genet. Different lizard species and a green grass snake were seen during the present study.

According to the history and time line study, key informants described the valley area including the Aba Asrat monastery as having been covered with a high density of tree and shrub species at the time of the Italian occupation of Ethiopia (1939-1941); the forest was used as camouflage/cover by the Ethiopian army. The pressure on biodiversity was very low as the human population density was low. During the reign of Haile Sillasse (1941-1973), the area was still covered with a high density of trees. After the Derg took over from Haile Sillasse in 1974, the proclamation nationalizing rural lands in 1975 changed the basis of land ownership. Some parts of the Aba Asrat monastery forest came under community ownership. Land redistribution and a reduced sense of ownership resulting from limited usufructuary rights led to the emergence of a severe sense of tenure insecurity. As a result the monks in the monastery removed all of the trees from the flat part of the monastery forest and sowed crops of maize (Zea mays) and tef (Eragrostis tef) continuously for three years (1975-1978). The situation resulted in the breakdown of local institutions and opened the way for local people to collect fuelwood despite the Derg’s strong forest protection program. People from Chemoga village, which is part of Debre Markos town (8 km from the monastery) began to collect fuelwood frequently to generate additional income. All interviewees reported that deforestation and degradation of the monastery forest was further accelerated immediately after the fall of the Derg in 1990. This was symptomatic of the brief period of transition at that time when there was instability and a lack of government control. A lot of the demobilised Derg army settled in Debre Markos and being amongst the poorest households in the area they engaged in collecting wood as a survival strategy. Although some of them left later on for their respective homes elsewhere in Ethiopia, those who remained, together with the local landless people and widows of the militia, still use the monastery woodland as a source of fuelwood and charcoal for their daily livelihoods. The conflict between the monks and livelihood groups who are using the monastery forest as a source of income and subsistence is rising and this is another threat to the monastery forest.

iv) Mihur Eyessus Monastery

Mihur Eyessus monastery is located 200 km south west of Addis Ababa and 50 km from Welkite. It has an altitude of 2050 m and its geographical location is 08⁰05’, 37⁰55’. The topography around Mihur Eyessus monastery includes high cliffs, gently undulating hills and flat land. There are several patches of forest in the surrounding areas, but most of the land between them is eroded. There are three rivers passing within the vicinity of the monastery adding beauty to the area. Among the three rivers, the Kareb River is surrounded by dense forest. It has been well preserved due to its inaccessibility as it is situated in a deep valley. The annual rainfall of the area around Mihur Eyessus monastery is 1300 mm with an annual mean temperature of 21⁰C (Mihur and Aklil District Agricultural Office).

The total number of woody plant species recorded in the area was 83 representing 55 families of flowering plants and conifers; 50% were trees, 45% shrubs and 5% climbers. The six most abundant species were Acanthus eminens, Garcinia buchananii, Podocarpus falcatus, Teclea nobilis, Myrsine africana and Maytenus arbutifolia. The most aboundant shrubs were Acanthus eminens, Teclea nobilis and Myrsine africana. The climbers were represented by only 2 species, Jasminum abyssinicum and Smilax aspera. The monastery forest is dominated by Podocarpus falcatus, Olea capensis and Syzygium guineense. The understorey trees are Garcinia buchananii and a few trees of Apodytes dimidiata. The shrubs include Teclea nobilis, Myrsine africana, Maytenus spp. and Acanthus eminens. Tree species planted on monastery land include Cupressus lucitanica, Eucalyptus globulus, Persea americana and Rhamnus priniodes. The monastery forest is home for many wild animals. Among the common mammals are colobus monkey, vervet monkey, pig, bush back, rabbit, and porcupine.

Mihur Eyessus is one of the most ancient and historic monasteries in Ethiopia. It is believed by the monks that the monastery was established in 1358 by Abune Zena Markos. According to the informants, before the arrival of Abune Zena Markos, people of the area had worshipped in ancestral spirits called Makos and Gerdan. After the arrival of the monk some of the local people were converted to Christianity while some resisted and have been worshiping the sprits until the beginning of the 20^th century.

During the times of the feudal kings between the 9 and 20^th Centuries, there were plenty of forests in the area and no trees were cut in the monastery forest. When the population started to increasing, and the amount of land allocated to farming was getting smaller, the surrounding forests began to be destroyed. However, this did not affect the monastery forest. At that time the monastery forest was controlled by the sebekagubae (church council). The sebekagubae is made up of all community members. As a result, no member of the community cut any tree from the monastery forest for two reasons. The first is the belief systems associated with the forest: the monastery forest is believed by the local people to be inherited from their ancestors; it is the place for saints; it gives grace to the monastery building; it is a resting place for pilgrims; it is a symbol of the garden of Eden; and it is home for animals that are created by God. The second reason is the local rules and the bylaws that were used by the church council to punish anyone who breaks the rules: they usually meet at Jofor (the meeting place) to decide the amount of money levied on violators.

The monastery forest was valued by the local people as a source of wood to make coffins, shade during Jofor meetings and for its aesthetic value. The monastery forest also belonged to both the monks and the community. As a result, the monastery forest was preserved. The community and clergy used to jointly control the monastery forest. However, six years ago, the forest began to be controlled solely by the monks by the order of the Patriarch. Community control, access and use rights were removed. As a result, there is now a big conflict between the community and the monks. According to monk informants, they are using old and fallen Juniperus procera and Podocarpus falcatus trees to meet the wood requirement of the monastery. During the present study, the research team observed a lot of pit sawing activity inside the forest. In contrast to the disturbance created by natural tree falls, the areas where pit sawing has taken place are devoid of natural regeneration due to trampling and accumulation of sawdust.

v) Ziqualla Monastery

Ziqualla Gebre Menfes Kidus Abo is located 84 km south of Addis Ababa in the valley of the Awash River, which follows a semi-circular course around the base of Ziqualla Mountain from the west to the south. The monastery is at an altitude of 3000 m above sea level and its geographical location is 38⁰ 42’E and 38⁰55’E longitude and 08⁰ 28’N to 8⁰35’ latitude. Ziqualla Mountain is almost cone shaped rising nearly one thousand meters from the surrounding plane. At the top is a circular crater, at the bottom of which (some hundred metres below the rim) is a crater lake. Many streams have their sources near the rim of the crater and they have eroded the land creating deep gullies on all sides of the mountain. Landslides are common.

The monastery forest is used as shelter for many wild animals such as bush duiker, klipspringer, golden jackal, leopard, aardvark, bushbuck, spotted hyaena, anubis baboon, vervet monkey, warthog, wild pig and colobus monkey. Bushbuck and klipspringer are becoming rare because of hunting for meat. A few endemic bird species such as wattled ibis, abyssinian catbird, and thickbilled raven were observed during the plot study.

The total number of woody plant species recorded in the monastery forest was 56 representing at least 42 families of flowering plants and conifers. The six most abundant species were Myrsine africana, Erica arborea, Juniperus procera, Galiniera saxifrage, Maytenus arbutifolia and Olea europea ssp. cuspidata. The three most abundant trees were Erica arborea, Juniperus procera and Olea europea ssp. cuspidata. The most abundant shrubs were Myrsine africana, Inulia confertiflora and Osyris lanceolata, and climber Smilax aspera, while woody herbs were represented by Acyranthus aspera and Lobelia giberroa in the study plots. The most frequently encountered species was Juniperus procera (frequency = 100%) while the species with the highest tree density, Myrsine africana, had a frequency of 72%. Only 8 species occurred in more than 50% of the plots, indicating dominance by few species.

Ziqualla Gebre Menfes Kidus Abo was established by Abune Gebremenfes Kidus during the reign of king Lalibela in 1162. Gebremenfes Kidus was an Egyptian monk who arrived in Ethiopia to continue the work of evangelization initiated by ‘The Nine Roman Saints’ (Ayele Teklehaimanot, 1950). After the death of Gebremenfes Kidus, King Endrias who ruled Ethiopia in the 15^th century built five churches in the monastery of Ziqualla. These were Medhane-Alem, St. Mary, St. Michael, St. Gabriel and Gebremenfes Kidus Abo. Between approximately 1527 and 1542 a Muslim leader, Ahmed Gragn, in an all-out jihad war destroyed many Orthodox churches. All the churches at Ziqualla were destroyed during this war. Then Emperor Menilik II rebuilt the monastery in 1880 using corrugated iron sheet roofing. The Monastery was again rebuilt in 1993. Since 1935, the government of Ethiopia started actively planting the area with many plant species such as Pinus radiata and Cupressus lucitanica. According to local informants Emperor Haile Sillasse played a significant role in the protection of the monastery forest by recruiting more than 100 soldiers. During the present regime, however, due to lack of a strong policy for sacred land forest protection, the surrounding community started expanding their agricultural land towards the summit of the mountain, and cutting trees for charcoal and fuel wood. In addition to forest destruction due to the increase in human population and livestock, fire is the major threat to the monastery forest. Much of the sacred land has been converted into grazing land by the nearby communities. The major threat is now the conflict between the monks and the community over the use of resources. Two of the eight local village communities (termed peasant associations (PAs)) are in strong conflict with the monastery over the use of the sacred land forests.

vi) Debre Benkol monastery

Debre Benkol monastery, in the highlands of Tigray, northern Ethiopia, is located 30 km from Axum town. It was established on the rocky flat top of Benkol Mountain. The foot of the mountain is at 2000 m a.s.l. whilst the top of the mountain rises to over 2650 m. Its geographical location is 38⁰ 37’ E, and 14⁰ 11’ N. The mean annual rainfall is 600 mm and the mean annual temperature is 21⁰C. Both the mountain top and its slopes are believed to have once been covered with dense forest of Olea europea ssp. cuspidata, and Juniperus procera. Most of this forest has since been cleared to obtain fuelwood and other wood products. Today very few Juniperus and some Olea trees are left in the area surrounding the monastery. The whole slope of the mountain is covered with shrubs such as Dodonaea angustifolia, Calpurnia aurea, Acokanthera schimperi, Pterolobium stellatum, Teclea nobilis and Euclea schimperi. Wood-cutting is still carried out by the people living in the monastery and residents of the surrounding area. The area of the monastery forest is now 56 ha. The forest is the major grazing land for livestock belonging to the monks and the surrounding residents. The forest is also rich in wild animals. Among the common mammals found are bush duiker, bushbuck, anubis baboon, other monkeys, aardvark, civet, serval, genet, and hyena.

44 woody plant species belonging to 27 families were recorded. Olea europea ssp. cuspidata, Acacia etbacia, Acacia lahai and Rhus retinorrhoea are the dominant woody species. Among the tree species endemic to the Afromontane floristic region, eight have been recorded as occurring in Ethiopia (Demel, 1996) and five of them were recorded in the site. In addition five other forms of Afromontane endemic plant species and four species of Afromontane near-endemics (Friis, 1992) have also been recorded. About 192 plant species have been reported to be threatened in Ethiopia (Ensermu et al., 1992). Among these, two species (Juniperus procera and Rhus glutinosa) were recorded in Debre Benkol monastery. Together with Cordia africana (protected by law), Albizia amara and Olea europea ssp. cuspidata (culturally highly valued), Juniperus procera and Rhus retinorrhoea were identified as threatened species of conservation importance for the area.

Using history and timeline study, it was found that Debre Benkol monastery was, and is still, a place of great religious importance to the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church. During the regime of Haile Sillasse it occupied a pre-eminent position as a source of religious people who teach Orthodox Christianity and its religious influence extended far beyond its own area into what now comprises the diocese of Debrelibanos Monastery in Shewa. The monastery used to occupy a very large land area given by emperor Haile Sillasse and previous emperors. It possessed a vast area of freehold land stretching from Axum in the East, to Shire in the West, Seraye in the North and to the Tekeze river in the south. The monastery then lost all the land it had acquired and was reduced to the current size of 56 ha of forest land as a result of the land proclamation of the Derg government which nationalised all land in Ethiopia in 1974. People started cutting the monastery forest intensively as a result of the cultural breakdown which occurred during the Derg regime and this has continued now due to the very loose land policy of the present government. When the monks were interviewed to find out whether they valued the monastery building more than the forest they said, “we value the monastery building but a church or a monastery without forest is like a human being without clothes”.

vii) Anchucho Medihanealem Church

Anchucho Medihanealem church is located 22 km south west of Sodo Town in Walaita Dawuro Zone of Southern Nation. It is situated on a flat land at an altitude of 1980 m. Its geographical location is 06⁰ 57’, 37⁰ 41’. Land surrounding the church is heavily populated to the extent that all cultivable land is under cereal crop cultivation. Due to shortage of grazing land, livestock of most of the farmers graze on cropland. The soil is heavy black vertisol and suffers from regular erosion. The mean annual rainfall is 1000 mm, and there are two rainy seasons, with three and four rainy months, respectively, March-May; July to October, with a peak in August. Mean annual temperature is 23^oC. Mean length of dry season(s) is 4 months (Arecha Agricultural Office)

Anchucho church forest is one of the few remnant dry afromontane forests in the region. The canopy tree species include Podocarpus falcatus, Croton macrostachyus, Cordia africana, Allophylus abyssinicus, Dovyalis abyssinica and Albizia schimperiana. Species of the shrub layer include Carissa edulis, Maytenus arbutifolia, Myrsine africana, Capparis micrantha, Vernonia auriculifera and Vernonia leopoldii. The Anchucho church forest is rich in highland biome birds.

According to the history and time line study, the history of Anchucho Medihanealem church dates back to one century. It was established in 1880 during the reign of emperor Menelik. The land, where the present church was founded, was once owned by private individuals. According to the informants, there was no Christianity at the time of Menelik. The king ordered one of his followers, Aba Tsgie to introduce Christianity to the area. Then the individuals who owned the land were made to give up their land for the establishment of the church building. At that time the area was densely forested with diverse tree species including bamboo. The church forest was highly diversified even during the reign of Emperor Haile Sillasse. Since the State and the church were strongly linked the people respected the church and its properties. Local people also planted trees around graveyards. The most common species planted were Podocarpus falcatus, Prunus africana and Juniperus procera. According to the informants, the tree species that are found today in the church yard are mostly planted by local people. As elsewhere in Ethiopia the Anchucho church forest was destroyed by Italian troops. After the fall of Emperor Haile Sillasse, a lot of damage to this church forest was done. Following the proclamation in 1974 of "land for tiller" the state and church were separated. The land, which belonged to the church was ex-appropriated and redistributed to landless peasants. The major threat to the church forest, according to informants, was the resettlement program around the forest. The number of followers of the Orthodox religion started to decline because of the introduction of protestant religion in the area. Although the followers of the protestant region had no direct effect on the church forest, the local people’s perception about the sacredness of the church forest changed. The current land area, which belongs to the church is estimated to be 4 ha. 2 ha of this is covered by forest and rest by plantation and Euphorbia woodland.

The total of 51 species represented by 1018 individuals was recorded in the sample plots. Of the total 25 plots surveyed, 85% were under dense canopy. 15% was under medium canopy. All plots were with poor ground cover due to high level of browsing and grazing effect. The 51 species represented 35 families of flowering plants and conifers. Among the 51 species recorded, the six most abundant species were Solanum schimperiana, Rytegynia neglecta, Clausena anisata, Teclea nobilis, Calpurnia aurea and Pittosporum abyssinica. The most abundant shrubs were Rytigynia negelecta, Teclea nobilis and Calpurnia aurea. The climbers were represented by only one species, Jasminum abyssinicum. The most frequently encountered species was Pittosporum abyssinica (frequency =84%) followed by Solanum schimperiana (frequency = 24%). Only 6 species occurred in more than 50% of the plots, indicating the dominance of few species. The 51 species of woody plants recorded in all the study plots exhibited very unequal abundance. Solanum schimperiana, a shrub species accounted for 161 individuals which is 15.8% out of the total 1018 individuals recorded. The major trees represented by seedlings (height £ 1) were Pittosporum abyssinica and Erythrina brucie. Shrubs such as Teclea nobilis and Maytenus spp. were regenerating well.

References

1) Ayele Teklehaimanot (1950). Ethiopian Review of Cultures. Capuchin Franciscan Institute of Philosophy and Theology.

2) Demel Teketay (1996). Seed ecology and regeneration in dry afromontone forest of Ethiopia. Doctoral thesis. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umea, Sweden.

3) Ensermu Kelbessa, Sebsebe Demissew, Zerihun Woldu and Sue Edward (1992). Some threatened endemic plants of Ethiopia. In. Sue Edward & Zemede Asfaw, (eds), The Status of Some Plant Resources in Parts of Tropical Africa. Botany 2000: East and centeral Africa. NAPRECA Monograph Series No. 2. NAPRECA, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa: 35-55.

4) Friis, I (1992). Forest and forest trees of north east tropical Africa. HMSO, Kew Bulletin Additional Series XV. 396pp.

5) IBCR (2003). National priority conservation species of Ethiopia. Unpublished Working Document, Addis Ababa.

6) Lovett, J. C. and I. Friis (1996). Patterns of endemism in the woody flora of north-east and east Africa. Pages 582-601 in L. J. G. van der Maesen, X. M. van der Burgt, J. M. van Medenbach de Rooy, editors. The Biodiversity of African Plants. The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

7) Teketay D. and Bekele T. (1995) Floristic composition of Wof-Washa natural forest, Central Ethiopia: Implications for the conservation of biodiversity, Feddes Repertorium, 106:127-147.

8) WCMC (World Conservation Monitoring Center) (1996). Guidelines for the application of the 1994 IUCN Red list Categories to trees. 17pp. Downloaded from http://www.wcmc.org.uk/trees/iucn_cats.htm

9) White, F. (1983). The vegetation of Africa, a descriptive memoir to accompany the UNESCO/AETFAT/UNSO Vegetation Map of Africa (3 Plates, Northwestern Africa, Northeastern Africa, and Southern Africa, 1:5,000,000). UNESCO, Paris.